Reasons for testing certain parameters
Alkalinity
Quantitatively, alkalinity is the capacity of the water to react with acid to a specific pH end point. The value obtained will depend on the indicator used. Two measures of alkalinity are conventionally applied - Alkaphot M (Alkalinity to methyl orange) and Alkaphot P (alkalinity to phenolphthalein).
Alkalinity is an important test parameter in a number of industrial water uses, notably in boiler water treatment. Boilers and steam raising plants are normally operated under conditions of high alkalinity to minimise corrosion. Monitoring of alkalinity is an important control test.
Natural and treated waters may contain a variety of dissolved alkaline substances such as carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, and, to a lesser extent, borates, phosphates and silicates. In waters of neutral pH, the alkalinity derives from the presence of bicarbonates.
Total Alkalinity is an important test in determining the aggressiveness or scale tendency of the water. If the total alkalinity is low the water may be aggressive and cause corrosion to pipework and structures. If the total alkalinity is high, the water may more readily promote scale formation. Alkalinity control is therefore an important part of many water treatment programmes.
Aluminium
Aluminium sulphate is widely used as a coagulant in drinking water treatment. The determination of aluminium (residual alum) is usually required for the control of alum coagulation and filtration processes at water works.
Aluminium salts are found in natural waters; levels are reported to be increasing particularly in areas affected by acid rain. High aluminium levels can be toxic to fish and aquatic life. Aluminium testing is therefore necessary for environmental control and for fish farms etc.
Ammonia
Ammonia occurs as a breakdown product of nitrogenous materials in natural waters. It is also found in domestic effluents and certain industrial waste waters. Ammonia is harmful to fish and other forms of aquatic life, and the ammonia level must be carefully controlled in water used for fish farms and aquariums. Ammonia tests are routinely applied for pollution control on effluent and waste waters, and for the monitoring of drinking water supplies.
The Palintest ammonia test provides a simple test for measuring ammonia (ammoniacal nitrogen) over the range 0 - 1.0 mg/l N.
Boron
Boron is an essential element for plant growth. However, some crops can be highly sensitive to boron at other than very low levels. For this reason, the boron level in irrigation water should be checked. Borates are widely used in the industrial processes and boron can occur in effluent discharges. For drinking water supplies, the guide level prescribed under the EC regulations is 0 - 2.5 mg/l.
Bromine
Bromine and bromine-release compounds are used for the disinfection of swimming pool water, and in many other water treatment systems. Accurate measurement of the bromine residual is an essential aspect of control of these processes.
The bromine level can be expressed in terms of free bromine, combined bromine or total bromine residuals. However, free and combined bromine are both considered powerful disinfectants and it is not normally necessary to differentiate between the two forms. For the majority of applications, the measurement of the total residual is sufficient.
Calcium Hardness
Calcium Hardness is caused by the presence of calcium ions in the water. Calcium salts can be readily precipitated from water and high levels of calcium hardness tend to promote scale formation in the water system. Calcium hardness is an important control test in industrial water systems such as boilers and steam raising plants, and for swimming pools.
The Palintest calcicol test provides a simple method of determining calcium hardness over the range 0 - 500 mg/l CaCO3.
Chloride
The Palintest Chloridol test provides a simple method for measuring chloride salt levels. There are many applications in water technology that require determination of chlorides. These include the measurement of low levels of chloride to determine the extent of carry-over in boiler waters; and measurement of high chloride levels for testing sea water or determining the saltiness of brackish waters. A further application for checking swimming pools where salt has been artificially added to simulate sea water bathing, or where this is necessary, for the operation of certain types of electrolytic hypochlorite generator.
The test can be used for measuring these widely different chlorides concentrations by varying the sample size selected.
Chlorine
Chlorine and chlorine-release compounds are widely used for the disinfection of drinking water and swimming pools, for the control of micro-biological growth in cooling water, and in many other water treatment systems. Accurate measurement of the chlorine residual is an essential aspect of the control of these chlorination processes.
The chlorine level can be expressed in terms of free chlorine, combined chlorine, or total chlorine residuals. For the majority of applications, measurement of free chlorine is the most important. The Palintest DPD method provides a simple means of measuring free, combined and total chlorine residuals over the range 0 - 5 mg/l. The Palintest Chlorine HR test provides a simple means of measuring total chlorine over the range 0 - 250 mg/l.
Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide is a reddish-yellow gas which is one of several known oxides of chlorine. It is used in the disinfection of water and bleaching of flour and wood pulp. It can also be used for air disinfection, and was the principal agent used in the decontamination of buildings in the United States after the 2001 anthrax attacks. It is effective against viruses, bacteria and protozoa ? including the cysts of Giardia and the oocysts of Cryptosporidium. This distinguishes it from chlorine, which has been used for more than a century as the standard water disinfectant. Chlorine dioxide was introduced as a drinking water disinfectant on a large scale in 1956, when Brussels, Belgium, changed from chlorine to chlorine dioxide. Recently, after the disaster of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, Louisiana and the surrounding Gulf Coast, Chlorine Dioxide has been used to eradicate dangerous mold from houses innundated by water from massive flooding.
Chromium
Chromium may be present in certain industrial waste waters, such as those from the tanning, plating and coating industries. Chromium may occur in hexavalent form as chromates and dichromates, or in trivalent form as chromium salts. In water supplies, hexavalent chromium is a particularly objectionable constituent. Trivalent chromium, although relatively inert, is also regarded as undesirable.
The Palintest Chromicol test provides a means of measuring chromium over the range 0 - 1.0 mg/l. The test is particularly useful since it can be used to differentiate between the concentrations of trivalent (CrIII) and hexavalent (CrVI) chromium present.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
Chemical Oxygen Demand is a vital test for assessing the quality of effluents and waste waters prior to discharge. The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test predicts the oxygen requirement of the effluent and is used for monitoring and control of discharges, and for assessing treatment plant performance.
The impact of an effluent on the receiving water is predicted by its oxygen demand. This is because the removal of oxygen from the natural water reduces its ability to sustain aquatic life. The COD test is therefore performed as routine in laboratories of water utilities and industrial companies.
Coliform
Coliform bacteria are used often as an indicator of sanitary quality of foods and water. Coliform bacteria are defined as rod-shaped Gram negative organisms which ferment lactose with the production of gas when incubated at 35 C. These organisms are normally found in the aquatic environment and on vegetation. The presence of coliform bacteria in drinking water indicates that the water was not properly treated to eliminate pathogens, or that it got contaminated somewhere in the distribution system.
Escherichia coli, a member of the coliform group can ferment lactose at 44 C as well. The origin of Escherichia coli is almost exclusively of fecal origin; thus, if it is found in water or food, it indicates fecal contamination, and an imminent health danger, as other fecal pathogens such as viruses or parasites may be also present.
Colour
Pure water exhibits a light blue colour when viewed in depth. This colour may be modified by the presence of organic material, typically to a yellow or brown colour. An estimate of this colour intensity is used as a means of monitoring natural and treated water.
Copper
Copper occurs naturally in many waters and may also result from corrosion of pipes and fittings. The presence of copper in drinking water can give rise to discolouration or an astringent taste.
Chelated copper compounds are extensively used a algicides in swimming pool water, home aquariums and other waters. Electrolytic devices which generate silver ions are used in the purification of swimming pool water.
Cyanuric Acid
Cyanuric acid is extensively used as a chlorine stabiliser in swimming pool water. Cyanuric acid itself may be added to the water when the pool is first filled, or may be introduced gradually through the use of chloroisocyanurate based chlorine donors. Swimming pool water treatment instructions generally recommend a cyanuric acid level within the range 30 - 200 mg/l. In some countries, a lower maximum level is recommended. The Palintest Cyanuric Acid test provides a simple method of measuring cyanuric acid levels over the range 0 - 200 mg/l.
Dissolved Oxygen
In aquatic environments, oxygen saturation is a relative measure of the amount of oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is measured in standard solution units such as millimoles O2 per liter (mmol/L), milligrams O2 per liter (mg/L), milliliter O2 per liter (ml/L), or parts per thousand (ppt). However, as in the medical sense, oxygen saturation is calculated as the percent of DO relative to a theoretical maximum concentration given the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the water. Well-aerated water (in free interchange with the air) will usually be 100% saturated. In general, the colder the water the more O2 it can dissolve, the more saline the water the less O2 it can dissolve, and the lower the atmospheric pressure (e.g., the higher the elevation), the less oxygen it can dissolve. These generalities come from the gas laws of physics.
Fluoride
Fluoride occurs naturally in some ground waters and is naturally introduced into drinking water for the prevention of tooth decay. Excessive amounts of fluoride are however objectionable and can cause tooth discolouration.
The Palintest Fluoride test provides a simple method of monitoring fluorides in natural waters, and for the control of fluoridation plant at water works.
Hardness
Water hardness is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium salts. High levels of hardness prevent the formation of lather with soap and can cause scaling in water systems - particularly boilers, heat exchangers and steam generating plant. Hardness is an important control in a wide variety of applications.
The Palintest Hardness test provides a simple method of checking water hardness over the range 0 - 500 mg/l CaC03.
Hydrazine
Hydrazine is used as an oxygen scavenger in high pressure boilers and steam raising plant. Hydrazine is particularly advantageous in that it does not contribute solids to the boiler water.
The Palintest Hydrazine test provides a simple means of measuring hydrazine levels in boiler feed water and boiler water over the range 0 - 0.5 mg/l.
Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is used in various water treatment processes. In such applications, it is important to ensure that the hydrogen peroxide level is maintained within the correct range to ensure optimum operation of the water treatment process.
The Palintest Hydrogen Peroxide LR test provides a simple means of measuring Hydrogen Peroxide levels over the range 0 - 2.0 mg/l.
Hydrogen peroxide is also used as a bleach and oxidizing agent in a number of industrial processes. Applications include textile bleaching, commercial laundering and paper manufacturing. It is important in such processes to control the hydrogen peroxide level within the correct range so as to achieve the desired bleaching or oxidizing effect without causing damage to the goods under treatment. Hydrogen Peroxide is also used in swimming pool water to control algae and improve clarity.
The Palintest Hydrogen Peroxide HR test provides a simple means of monitoring hydrogen peroxide levels in water over the range 0 - 100 mg/l.
Iron
Iron occurs widely in nature and is found in many natural and treated waters. Iron is an objectionable constituent in both domestic and industrial water supplies. The presence of iron affects the taste of beverages and causes staining of laundered clothes, plumbing fittings, swimming pool surfaces and the like. The formation of insoluble iron deposits is troublesome in many industrial applications and in agricultural water uses such as drip feed irrigation. In industry, iron salts occur through corrosion of plant and equipment and from industrial processes.
Iron is therefore an important test for the monitoring of natural and drinking waters, for corrosion control in industry and for the checking of effluents and waste waters. The Palintest Iron LR test provides a simple test for the determination of low levels of iron in water over the range 0 - 1 mg/. Fe. The test responds to both ferrous and ferric iron and thus gives a measure of the total iron content of the water.
Lead
Lead is one of our most serious environmental pollutants. Millions of people are still exposed to potential health risks from lead in household water supplies. The long-term health hazards associated with lead and other heavy metals has been increasingly recognised by Government agencies and regulatory bodies. This has resulted in new environmental legislation and the tightening of existing standards covering drinking water. The World Health Organisation has already proposed a guideline value of 10 μg/l. In the European Community, the present maximum limit is 50 μg/l. However, in the future, this will be progressively reduced from 50 μg/l to 25 μg/l in 2003 to 10 μg/l in 2013. The need for simple affordable means of monitoring has therefore never been greater.
Legionella
Since the first reported cases of Legionnaires' Disease in 1976, outbreaks of this potentially fatal disease remains a threat. This has highlighted the need for frequent monitoring and testing of potential sources of infection. It has been assembled in-line with the new Health and Safety Commission guidelines on legionella which require that specific, weekly tests be carried out on potential sources of infection. All the components needed for these tests are provided in the kit.
Legionnaires' Disease is a type of pneumonia caused by a bacterium Legionella pneumophila which is commonly found in natural and artificial water systems and can proliferate in poorly maintained wet cooling systems in a wide variety of workplaces (e.g. hospitals, office buildings, industrial premises and in the hotel and leisure industry).
Certain materials have been known to harbour the organism such as shower heads and rubber gaskets used in hot water systems. Infection may occur when fine water droplets containing bacterium are breathed in.
It can also be found in cooling towers and evaporative condensers such as air conditioning plants and industrial cooling systems where typical temperatures may rise above 20°C.
Measures to control Legionnaires' Disease include proper disinfection and chlorination, thorough draining and regular inspection of all cooling towers and evaporative condensers. Cisterns and pipework should be designed so that water is not allowed to stagnate or stand undisturbed for long periods. An important part of reducing risks is a comprehensive monitoring programme.
Weekly checks required by the HSC guidelines for cooling towers are:
- Oxidising biocide
- Conductivity
- pH
- Micro bacteriological activity
Magnesium
Magnesium is a widely occurring natural element and is found in most water supplies. Magnesium salts contribute to the hardness of water and higher levels of magnesium will be found therefore in hard water areas. Scale formation in heating and steam raising equipment is promoted by the presence of magnesium salts in the water. Magnesium salts do however have a lower scale forming tendency than calcium salts.
The Palintest Magnecol test provides a simple means of measuring magnesium levels in water over the range 0 - 100 mg/l Mg.
Manganese
Manganese-containing minerals occur widely and manganese salts are commonly found in many natural waters. Manganese is an objectionable constituent in water used for domestic purposes or industrial applications. In domestic situations, manganese will cause brown or black staining to laundry or plumbing fittings even at very low concentrations. In process applications such as paper manufacturing or textile finishing, similar staining can occur. Manganese salts may impart an astringent taste to drinking water supplies, and in swimming water applications can give an aesthetically displeasing brown coloration to the water.
In most cases where manganese salts occur naturally in the water, it will be necessary to apply special methods of removal before the water can be used for domestic or industrial purposes. The Palintest Manganese test provides an extremely sensitive method of measuring low concentrations of manganese for the assessment of natural waters and the control of manganese removal plant. The test measures total manganese over the range 0 - 0.030 mg/l.
Molybdate
Formulations containing Molybdate are used as corrosion inhibitors in industrial water treatment. In particular, Molybdate finds application in closed recirculating systems such as water heating systems and chilled water systems. Molybdate based formulations have replaced older forms of corrosion inhibitor such as chromate.
When using Molybdate treatment it is necessary to control the Molybdate concentration within specified levels depending on the application involved. Moreover, since molybdates are widely used in water treatment and in industrial processes, Molybdate is an increasingly important test for effluents and industrial discharges.
The Palintest Molybdate HR test provide s simple means of measuring high levels of Molybdate in industrial waters and effluents and covers the range 0 -100 mg/l MoO4.
The Palintest Molybdate LR test provides a simple means of measuring low levels of Molybdate in industrial waters and effluents and covers the range 0 - 20 mg/l MoO4 (0-12 mg/l Mo)
Nickel
Nickel does not occur naturally in water but is found in many industrial waste waters, such as those from the steel and plating industries. It is considered an undesirable consituent of water and hence requires close and careful monitoring. The EC maximum available concentration for drinking water (MAC) is 0.05mg/l.
The Palintest Nickeltest method provides a simple test for the determination of nickel in water over the range 0 - 10 mg/l Ni. The test responds to both Ni2+ and Ni4+ and thus gives a measure of total soluble inorganic nickel content of the water.
Nitrate
Nitrates are normally present in natural, drinking and waste waters. Nitrates enter water supplies from the breakdown of natural vegetation, the use of chemical fertilisers in modern agriculture and from the oxidation of nitrogen compounds in sewage effluents and industrial wastes.
Nitrate is an important control test for water supplies. Drinking water containing excessive amounts of nitrates can cause methaemoglobinaemia in bottle-fed infants (blue babies). The EC has set a recommended maximum of 5.7 mg/l N (25 mg/l NO3) and an absolute maximum of 11.3 mg/l N (50 mg/l NO3) for nitrate in drinking water.
The Palintest Nitratest method provides a simple test for nitrate nitrogen over the range 0 - 1 mg/l N. The test can however, be extended to cover the range 0 - 20 mg/l by a simple dilution technique.
Nitrite
Nitrites are found in natural waters as an intermediate product in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrite is harmful to fish and other forms of aquatic life and the nitrite level must be carefully controlled in water used for fish farms and aquariums. The nitrite test is also applied for pollution control in waste waters and for the monitoring of drinking water.
The Palintest Nitricol test provides a simple method of measuring Nitrite Nitrogen levels over the range 0 - 0.5 mg/l N. Higher levels can be determined by diluting the sample.
Nitrites and nitrite-based formulations are widely used for corrosion control in cooling water systems. The Palintest Nitriphot test provides a simple means of measuring nitrite for the control of such treatment products in cooling water. The test covers the range 0 - 1500 mg/l Na NO2.
Organophosphonate
The use of organophosphonate compounds as inhibitors in cooling systems has become widespread in recent years. It is essential; to monitor the active organophosphonate content of the cooling water to ensure the treatment is fully effective.
The Palintest OP test provides a reliable means of monitoring organophosphonate levels over the range 0 - 20 mg/l PO4. The test has been developed for use with commercially available organophosphonate products such as those on amino trimethyl phosphonic acid and hydroxyethane diphosphonic acid.
Ozone
Ozone is used for the disinfection of swimming pool water, and in many other water treatment systems. In swimming pool water treatment ozone is normally introduced into the circulation system and then removed prior to the re-entry of the water to the pool. In other water treatment systems, an ozone residual may be maintained in the water. In all cases, accurate measurement of ozone residual is essential for the control of the system or to ensure that the ozone has been removed.
The Palintest DPD Ozone method provides a simple means of measuring ozone residuals up to a level of 2.0 mg/l. Other disinfectants such as chlorine and bromine are frequently used in conjunction with ozone. Supplementary procedures are therefore provided for the separate determination of these residuals.
pH
pH measurement is one of the tests most frequently carried out on water and aqueous solutions. The phenol red indicator method provides a simple means of pH determination for neutral and slightly alkaline waters over the range 6.8 - 8.4 units. The Phenol Red pH test is particularly applicable to testing swimming pools and spas.
Phenol
Phenols and substituted phenols may occur in natural, drinking and industrial waste waters. Phenols are not readily removed from water by conventional water treatment processes. These compounds arise typically from oil and chemical refining, livestock dips, the breakdown of pesticides, human and animal wastes and from naturally occurring sources. Chlorination of such waters may produce odorous and objectionable tasting chlorophenols.
The Palintest Phenoltest method provides a simple means of measuring the concentration of phenol and phenolic compounds present in water over the range 0 - 5.0 mg/l. The concentration of phenol determined in the test is due to unsubstituted and to ortho and meta substituted phenols. A proportion of para substituted phenols will give a positive response.
PHMB
Polyhexamethylbiguanide (PHMB) is an organic biocide used for water disinfection. PHMB based sanitisers are widely used for the treatment of swimming pool water. These sanitisers are typically sold under branded names for example Baquacil (Zeneca), Softswim (Biolab), Revosil (Mareva) and Nicosil (Nico Norge).
The Palintest PHMB test provides a simple means of measuring PHMB-based sanitiser levels in swimming pool waters over the range 0 - 100 mg/l. The test is calibrated in terms of commercially available santitiser products which normally contain 20% active biocide.
Phosphate
Phosphates are extensively used for treating water in boilers and steam raising plant. Phosphates are added to control the deposition of sediment and deposits within the boiler. It is an essential part of the treatment programme to monitor the phosphate level to ensure this is within the correct range for deposition control.
The Palintest Phosphate HR test provides a simple method of measuring phosphate levels in boiler waters over the range 0 - 100 mg/l PO4.
Phosphates are extensively used in detergent formulations and washing powders. Phosphates are also found in widespread applications in the food processing industry and in industrial water treatment processes. Agricultural fertilizers normally contain phosphate minerals and phosphates also arise from the breakdown of plant materials and in animal wastes.
Phosphates can therefore enter water courses through a variety of routes - particularly domestic and industrial effluents and run-off from agricultural land. Phosphate is an important control test from natural and drinking waters.
Whilst phosphates are not generally considered harmful for human consumption, they do exhibit a complex effect on the natural environment. In particular, phosphates are associated with eutrophication of water and with rapid unwanted plant growth in rivers and lakes. Phosphates present in natural water pass through into drinking water supplies.
The Palintest Phosphate LR test provides a simple method of measuring phosphate levels over the range 0 - 4 mg/l PO4. For drinking water, the EC has set a guide level of 0.5mg/l PO4 (0.4 mg/l P2 O5) and a maximum admissible concentration of 6.7 mg/l PO4 (5 mg/l P2 O5).
Potassium
Potassium is an abundant natural element. However, in fresh water potassium levels are normally low. Higher levels can be observed in brackish waters. The guide level prescribed for drinking water supplies under the EC Regulations is 10 mg/l.
The Palintest Potassium test provides a simple means of testing potassium levels in water over the range 0 - 12.0 mg/l.
QAC (Quatest)
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC or Quats), and similar cationic detergents, are used as sanitising germicides in catering, the food and drinks industry and similar applications. The uses of these products include the washing of utensils and equipment, surface cleaning, dish-washing rinse water and other applications where germ free conditions must be maintained.
The Palintest Quatest method provides a simple means of measuring QAC levels in detergent use solutions over the range 0 - 500 mg/l active QAC. The Quatest test can also be used as a simple control test for QAC levels at 200 mg/l - a commonly used concentration.
The Quatest method was standardised using a recognized standard Quaternary Ammonium Compount consisting of n-alkyl (50% C14, 40% C12, 10% C16) dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride. Test results are expressed as "mg/l active QAC" in terms of this compound.
Commercial detergent products may contain different types of quaternary ammonium compounds or other cationic compounds in solutions of varying concentration, and may be formulated with other ingredients. To calculate the dosage of commercial products from the test resul regard must be paid to the active content of the detergent in use.
Method
Cationic detergents, including Quaternary Ammonium Compounds, form an intense blue colour with certain sulphonephthalein indicators. Cationic compounds, moreover can be neutralised by reaction with anionic detergents. The Palintest Quatest method is based on the use of a single tablet reagent containing both an indicator and a standardised amount of anionic detergent. In the test procedure the reagent tablet reacts with the Quaternary Ammonium Compound in the test sample to produce a definite blue-to-purple colour change.
Silica
Silicon, in the form of silica, is one of the earth's most abundant elements. Silicon is found widely in natural waters as colloidal silica or soluble silicates.
Silica and silicates do not normally cause any problems in water intended for domestic consumption. However, their presence is undesirable in water used in a variety of industrial applications. This is because of the tendency of such water to form a hard scale on equipment. Silica and silicate containing waters are particularly troublesome in steam generating plants such as high pressure boilers since silica can build up on turbine blades.
The Palintest Silica test provides a simple means of measuring silica and silicate levels in natural treated and industrial and cooling waters over the range 0 - 150 mg/l SiO2.
Sulphate
Sulphates occur naturally in many waters. Sulphates are introduced into treated waters by the use of such chemicals as aluminium sulphate, sodium bisulphate (dry acid) and sulphuric acid. The presence of high levels of sulphate can be undesirable for a number of reasons.
In industrial waters containing sulphate localized corrosion of iron, steel and aluminium in plant and pipework can occur through the action of sulphate-reducing bacteria. These bacteria, which generate sulfides, cause a characteristic pitting of the metal surface.
High sulphate levels can also cause damage to concrete and cement based materials through the formulation of calcium solphoaluminate. This causes expansion and crumbling of the cement. It can affect concrete structures and pipes in water distribution systems carrying sulphate-bearing ground waters; and can attack grouting in tiled swimming pools using sodium bisulphate for pH adjustment.
The Palintest Sulphate test provides a simple method of measuring sulphates over the range 0 - 200 mg/l S04. Higher levels may be determined by diluting the sample.
Sulphide
Natural waters containing dissolved hydrogen sulphide and other sulphides are found in certain parts of the world, particularly in areas having hot springs. Sulphides are constituents of many industrial wastes such as those from tanneries, gas plants and chemical works. Sulphides can be toxic to fish and aquatic life; and their presence in water supplies give rise to undesirable tastes and odours.
The Palintest Sulphide test provides a simple method of measuring total available sulphide over the range 0 - 0.5 mg/l and is particularly applicable to natural and drinking waters. Higher levels such as those found in effluents and waste waters can be determined by diluting the sample.
Sulphite
Oxygen is a major cause of corrosion in boilers and steam raising plants. Sodium sulphite and catalysed sulphite formulations are extensively used as oxygen scavengers in boiler water treatment.
The Palintest Sulphitest provides a simple means of measuring sulphite levels for the control of such treatments in boiler plan. The test covers the range 0 - 500 mg/l Na2 So3.
Temperature
Temperature plays an important role in almost all fields of science, including physics, chemistry, and biology. Many physical properties of materials including the phase (solid, liquid, gaseous or plasma), density, solubility, vapor pressure, and electrical conductivity depend on the temperature. Temperature also plays an important role in determining the rate and extent to which chemical reactions occur. This is one reason why the human body has several elaborate mechanisms for maintaining the temperature at 37 °C, since temperatures only a few degrees higher can result in harmful reactions with serious consequences.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
TDS is that portion of solids in water that can pass through a 2 micron filter. The more minerals dissolved into the water the higher the total dissolved solids. Waters with high dissolved solids are generally of inferior palatability. In drinking water a limit of 500 mg/L is desirable.
Turbidity
Turbidity is an important parameter for characterising water quality. Turbidity is caused by the scattering of light by suspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter. A knowledge of turbidity facilitates estimation of the concentration of undissolved substances.
Zinc
Zinc compounds are used as corrosion inhibitors in industrial cooling water systems and similar applications. Control of the zinc level is an important aspect of corrosion control in such systems. Zinc and zinc containing alloys are widely used in industry and zinc salts are commonly found in industrial effluents.
The Palintest Zinc test provides a simple means of testing zinc levels over the range 0 - 4 mg/l and is suitable for testing cooling waters and industrial effluents, and for the monitoring of natural and drinking waters.